AP Psychology — Cheatsheet

On the exam

• For neurotransmitter items, memorize one disorder or behavior per transmitter: dopamine–movement/reward, serotonin–mood, ACh–muscles/memory, GABA–anxiety (inhibitory), glutamate–excitatory, endorphins–pain. A single anchor per transmitter is usually enough to earn the point.
• When a question distinguishes brain-imaging tools, sort by structure vs. function: **CT/MRI = structure** (a photograph), **fMRI/PET = function** (a movie of activity), **EEG = electrical activity over time**. Naming the structure/function split usually earns the point on FRQs.
• On nature–nurture FRQs, name the *method* that isolates the influence: **twin studies** (identical vs. fraternal) and **adoption studies** (biological vs. adoptive relatives). Then note that the modern answer is always **interaction**, not one or the other.
• For color-vision items, pair the two theories: **trichromatic (three cones)** explains detection at the receptor level, while **opponent-process** explains **afterimages** and color pairs. Questions about staring at a color then seeing its complement are always opponent-process.
• Sort long-term memory quickly on the exam: **explicit** = "can declare it" (facts = semantic, events = episodic); **implicit** = "can’t easily state it" (skills = procedural, conditioned responses). A skill like typing is always implicit/procedural.
• When a question describes leading questions, false details, or unreliable eyewitnesses, the answer is almost always **Loftus / the misinformation effect** and memory as **reconstruction**. Confidence does not equal accuracy — a favorite exam point.
• On FRQs, tie each bias to a one-line trigger: availability = vivid/easily recalled examples, representativeness = matches a stereotype, confirmation bias = only seeking supporting evidence, framing = same facts worded differently. Naming the trigger nails the definition point.
• For intelligence theorists, keep a one-liner each: Spearman = **g** (one general factor), Gardner = **multiple intelligences**, Sternberg = **analytical/creative/practical**. For language, remember the debate: **Skinner (learning/reinforcement)** vs. **Chomsky (inborn LAD)**.
• On classical-conditioning FRQs, always identify the response type: classical conditioning produces an **automatic, reflexive** response (salivation, fear, nausea) to a stimulus. If the behavior is voluntary and shaped by consequences, it is *operant*, not classical.
• For schedules, decode the two words: first word = predictability (**fixed** = set, **variable** = unpredictable), second word = trigger (**ratio** = number of responses, **interval** = time). **Variable-ratio** = fastest, most persistent responding (gambling).
• Distinguish the two development theorists cleanly: **Piaget** = stages a child moves through largely on their own; **Vygotsky** = learning driven by *social* interaction (ZPD, scaffolding). If a question emphasizes a mentor or culture, think Vygotsky.
• For attachment items, pair each researcher with a takeaway: **Harlow** = contact comfort over food (cloth vs. wire mother), **Ainsworth** = Strange Situation reveals secure vs. insecure styles. For lifespan crises, know Erikson’s adolescence stage — **identity vs. role confusion** — cold.
• For cognitive dissonance, look for the setup: a person acts against their attitude with *weak external justification*, then changes the attitude to match the act. Low pay/reward for the counter-attitudinal behavior increases dissonance and therefore attitude change.
• Match the landmark study to its lesson: **Asch** = conformity to a group’s wrong answer, **Milgram** = obedience to authority, **Darley & Latané** = bystander effect/diffusion of responsibility, **Janis** = groupthink. FRQs often give the scenario and want the study or term named.
• Sort personality theories by their core question: **psychodynamic** = unconscious conflict (Freud), **humanistic** = growth and self-actualization (Maslow/Rogers), **trait** = describing stable dimensions (Big Five), **social-cognitive** = person × environment interaction (Bandura, Rotter).
• For Yerkes–Dodson, remember the inverted-U and the task twist: **moderate arousal is best overall**, but **easy/practiced tasks favor higher arousal** and **hard/novel tasks favor lower arousal**. Naming both the peak and the difficulty adjustment earns full credit.
• When a scenario lists causes from *multiple* domains (genes + thoughts + environment), the answer is the **biopsychosocial model**. For disorder identification, anchor each category to one signature: anxiety = persistent fear/worry, mood = emotional extremes, schizophrenia = break from reality.
• Match drug class to neurotransmitter and disorder: **antidepressants (SSRIs) → raise serotonin → depression/anxiety**; **antipsychotics → lower dopamine → schizophrenia**; **lithium (mood stabilizer) → bipolar**. The neurotransmitter link is a frequent exam target.
• For GAS, memorize the three phases in order — **Alarm → Resistance → Exhaustion** — and that the *exhaustion* phase is when the body’s depleted reserves leave it vulnerable to illness. Link chronic stress and cortisol to weakened immunity for FRQ health questions.
• Distinguish two happiness dampeners: the **adaptation-level phenomenon** is comparing to your *own past* (you adapt to gains), while **relative deprivation** is comparing to *other people*. Both explain why objective improvements often fail to raise lasting happiness.

How to get a 5

• On "apply the concept" FRQs, pair a correct definition with a specific example tied to the prompt — a definition alone or a vague example usually earns nothing.
• Write complete sentences and never use a term to define itself; state the mechanism explicitly (e.g., "fight-or-flight arousal").
• Learn the frequently-confused pairs — negative reinforcement vs punishment, James-Lange vs Cannon-Bard, IV vs DV — because the exam targets exactly these contrasts.
• For research methods, be ready to give an operational definition, identify variables, and explain why random assignment permits causal claims.
• The multiple-choice section is now overwhelmingly application. Expect a two-sentence vignette and a question asking which concept it illustrates, so study by generating your own examples: for every term, write one scenario that fits it and one near-miss scenario that does not. Recognizing a definition is not the same skill as recognizing an instance.
• Get attributions exactly right, because distractors are built from adjacent researchers. Pavlov classical, Skinner operant, Bandura observational, Watson Little Albert; Piaget cognitive stages, Vygotsky scaffolding, Erikson psychosocial, Kohlberg moral; Asch conformity, Milgram obedience, Zimbardo roles, Darley and Latané bystander; Loftus eyewitness memory, Kahneman and Tversky heuristics.
• On the Article Analysis Question, the operational definition point requires the exact measurement described in the stimulus, not a dictionary definition. Write "the number of word pairs correctly recalled out of 50," not "how well they remembered." Quote the specific numbers, instruments, and procedures from the passage in every part.
• Memorize the causal-inference chain and deploy it constantly: manipulation plus random assignment plus a significant difference permits a causal claim; a correlation permits only an association claim, and you should always name a specific alternative — reverse causation or a named third variable — rather than saying "correlation is not causation."
• On the Evidence-Based Question, take a clear position in the first sentence and never hedge. Then cite a concrete number or finding from a source, explain the link in your own words, and name the psychological concept doing the work. Reserve the final paragraph for the strongest counterevidence in the sources and concede what is genuinely true before rebutting it.

Key terms