Congress: Structure & Lawmaking
- Compare the constitutional powers and procedures of the House and the Senate
- Explain how committees, party leadership, and the filibuster shape the lawmaking process
- Analyze models of representation and sources of gridlock in Congress
Two chambers, two characters
Congress is bicameral, and the chambers differ by design. The House of Representatives (435 members, two-year terms, apportioned by population) is built for majority rule: debate is limited by the Rules Committee, and a simple majority can pass a bill. The Senate (100 members, six-year terms, two per state) is built for deliberation and minority voice: debate is generally unlimited, allowing the filibuster, which can be ended only by cloture (60 votes). The House alone can impeach and originate revenue bills; the Senate alone tries impeachments, confirms appointments, and ratifies treaties (two-thirds).
How a bill really moves
Most of a bill’s fate is decided in committees, where the detailed work of drafting, hearings, and markup happens — most bills die here. Party leadership steers the agenda: the Speaker of the House is the powerful presiding officer of the majority party, while the Senate Majority Leader sets the Senate’s schedule. Because the two chambers must pass identical text, differences are reconciled (often in a conference committee) before a bill goes to the president. Budgeting adds its own tools — the discretionary vs. mandatory spending distinction and the use of pork-barrel provisions and logrolling (vote-trading) to build coalitions.
How members decide: models of representation
When members vote, they draw on competing models of representation. A trustee votes according to his or her own judgment of the public good. A delegate votes the way constituents want, even against personal judgment. A politico blends the two, acting as trustee on some issues and delegate on others. These roles, plus divided government, ideological polarization, and the Senate’s supermajority hurdles, help explain gridlock — the difficulty of passing major legislation even when a problem is widely recognized.
A bill to fund a new highway passes the House by a simple majority but stalls in the Senate, where 55 senators support it. Explain why it can move in the House yet stall in the Senate, and what its supporters need to advance it.
- 1.Recall the House rule: debate is limited (via the Rules Committee), so a simple majority (218 of 435) is enough to pass a bill.
- 2.Recall the Senate rule: debate is generally unlimited, so opponents can filibuster to prevent a final vote.
- 3.Apply the cloture requirement: ending a filibuster takes 60 votes, so 55 supporters fall short of breaking it even though they are a majority.
- 4.Conclude what supporters need: they must find five more votes to reach 60 for cloture, or restructure the bill to win over reluctant senators.
A senator delays a final vote through extended debate, and supporters cannot muster 60 votes to stop it. Which pair of terms correctly names this tactic and the vote needed to end it?
Anchor the House–Senate contrast on debate: the House limits it (Rules Committee, majority rules), the Senate does not (filibuster, cloture needs 60). Many exam items reduce to which chamber’s rules apply, so lead with that distinction.
A representative personally opposes a trade bill but votes for it because polls show most constituents in her district strongly favor it. Which model of representation is she following?
Distinguish the two "exclusive" lists: the House originates revenue bills and impeaches; the Senate confirms appointments, ratifies treaties (two-thirds), and tries impeachments. Mixing these up is a common, avoidable error.
Answer the 2 checkpoints as you read.
Sign in to save your progress